Color Vision Deficiency (CVD) affects over 300 million individuals worldwide, with protanopia and deuteranopia being the most common subtypes, causing red-green confusion. This study leverages machine learning to (a) classify reference (considered as normal vision) and simulated protanopia and deuteranopia Ishihara plate images, (b) generate corresponding enhanced versions of these images, and (c) provide improved textbook diagrams (from NCERT books) and other pseudochromatic figures for CVD students, validated through feedback from diagnosed individuals. Tritanopia and milder forms of CVD were excluded in this study. A dataset of 1,400 Ishihara plates was processed to simulate protanopia and deuteranopia perception via standard Red Green Blue (sRGB) to long-, medium-, and short-wavelength cone (LMS) modeling. Enhanced images were generated using a daltonization function defined by the error between reference and simulated images, with enhancement strength (α) optimized to maximize contrast gain while minimizing distortion. Feature embeddings from ResNet-50, EfficientNet-B0, and DenseNet-201 were fused and reduced via PCA, followed by One-vs-All (OvA) (classifiers: linear support vector machine, logistic regression, and decision tree), random forest, gradient boosting, and neural network. Results showed optimal enhancement at α = 0.54 for deuteranopia and 0.64 for protanopia, achieving contrast gains of 69.6 and 64.3, respectively, with minimal color distortion (ΔE ≈ 4.9) and negligible clipping (<0.002). The OvA strategy achieved 99.7% accuracy, while MLP reached 100% across metrics. Surveys with 15 diagnosed students confirmed substantial perceptual improvement: recognition of previously unreadable digits and symbols increased from <20% to full visibility, with mean ratings above 4/5 for enhanced images. The OvA technique integrated with daltonization can assist in enhancing Ishihara and educational images in real time.

This study is devoted to the analysis of the perception of colour schemes of web resources by users with different types of colour blindness (colour vision deficiency). The purpose of this study is to develop recommendations for choosing the optimal colour scheme for web resource design that will ensure the comfortable perception of content for the broadest possible audience, including users with colour vision deficiency of various types (deuteranopia and deuteranomaly, protanopia and protanomaly, tritanopia, and tritanomaly). This article presents the results of a survey of people with different colour vision deficiencies regarding the accessibility of web resources created using different colour schemes. The colour deviation value ∆E was calculated to objectively assess changes in the perception of different colour groups by people with colour vision impairments. The conclusions of this study emphasise the importance of taking into account the needs of users with colour vision impairments when developing web resources. Specific recommendations for choosing the best colour schemes for websites are also offered, which will help increase the accessibility and effectiveness of web content for users with different types of colour blindness.

Background: Color vision deficiency (CVD) is an often-overlooked issue within the medical community, and its consequences remain insufficiently explored. We aim to evaluate how CVD affects diagnostic accuracy and distinguish between malignant choroidal melanoma and benign choroidal nevus among ophthalmologists. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, we engaged ophthalmologists through a web-based survey distributed via the professional ophthalmology society's social media channels. The survey encompassed a series of three fundus images representing normal fundus, choroidal nevus, and choroidal melanoma. Each image underwent simulation for the three primary types of CVD-protanopia, deuteranopia, and tritanopia-alongside a non-simulated version. Results: The study included 41 participants, averaging 40 years of age (±9.2), comprising 28 (68%) men and 13 (32%) women. Significantly lower rates of identifying orange pigments were observed in simulated protanopia images compared to non-simulated ones (p = 0.038). In simulated deutranopia images, the recognition of melanotic lesions was notably reduced compared to non-simulated images (p = 0.048). No such limitation was observed for tritanopia. However, participants retained their ability to identify subretinal fluid and estimate tumor thickness in simulated and non-simulated images. Concerning simulated images of choroidal nevi, participants misdiagnosed nevi as choroidal melanoma in 37% of cases in simulated protanopia nevi images and 41% in simulated deutranopia nevi images. This resulted in unnecessary referrals of benign lesions as malignant, emphasizing the potential for mistaken diagnoses. Nevertheless, almost all simulated images of malignant melanoma were correctly referred for specialized oncological treatment. Conclusions: The simulated CVD conditions of protanopia and deuteranopia affected the accuracy of identifying the melanotic nature of the choroidal tumor and the presence of orange pigments. This limitation led to challenges in correctly diagnosing choroidal melanoma and choroidal nevus, resulting in extra referrals for nevus cases. However, participants were safe and could still determine the possible risk of eyes with choroidal melanoma, so most referred melanoma cases to specialized oncologists as needed.

Background and objective Color vision abnormality is a condition where the faculty to identify one or more primary colors is either defective (anomalous) or absent (anopia). Occupations like armed forces, merchant navy, navigation, and police and fire services require normal color vision. There is a scarcity of data in the literature regarding the prevalence of congenital color vision abnormality in patients in South India. In light of this, the present study aimed to find the prevalence of congenital color vision abnormality in patients attending the Outpatient Department (OPD) at a tertiary eye care center in South India. Materials and methods This was a descriptive cross-sectional study conducted at a tertiary eye care center in South India from December 2014 to December 2016. Patients with a best-corrected visual acuity of 20/20, normal direct and consensual pupillary light reflex, normal anterior segment, and undilated fundus examination were included. Color vision was assessed using Ishihara pseudoisochromatic plates, American Optical Hardy-Rand-Rittler (AO HRR), and then the Farnsworth Munsell D15 arrangement test. All the results were tabulated and statistically analyzed. Statistical significance was calculated using the ANOVA test. Results A total of 371 patients were screened for color vision abnormality; 184 (49.59%) patients were males and 187 (50.40%) were females. Out of 371 patients in the study, 363 (98.10%) had normal color vision while eight patients (2.16%) had color vision abnormality. Of the eight patients with color vision abnormalities, six (75%) had abnormal color vision on all three tests and two (25%) had an abnormality on only two tests (Ishihara and AO HRR). Out of 184 males in the study, eight patients (4.34%) had abnormal color vision while none of the 187 females had color vision abnormality; this difference was statistically significant (p=0.03). Conclusions Early diagnosis and providing education and awareness of this condition are necessary as part of guiding young people with regard to their career options and we recommend that all children should undergo color vision screening before entering high school.

Color vision deficiency (CVD) is an under-reported problem among medical personnel, and its impact is still not well characterized. We aim to assess the impact of CVD among ophthalmologists on the accuracy of diagnosing different benign and malignant choroidal lesions. This is a cross-sectional study conducted on ophthalmologists. We used a web-based survey to collect responses through professional ophthalmology society social media. The survey included a set of five images for normal fundus, choroidal nevus, circumscribed choroidal hemangioma, choroidal metastasis, and choroidal melanoma, wherein each image simulated the three main types of CVD: protanopia, deuteranopia, and tritanopia, in addition to a non-simulated image. Forty-one participants were included, with a mean age of 40 (±9.2) years. They were 28 (68%) men and 13 (32%) women. Participants showed significantly low accuracy for definite diagnosis for circumscribed choroidal hemangioma, nevus, melanoma, and metastasis when the images simulated protanopia and deuteranopia, but not tritanopia. Nevertheless, participants maintained the capability to recognize the nature of the lesions for both simulated and non-simulated images if they were benign or malignant, thereby ensuring immediate referral for specialized care. The exception was with simulated choroidal nevi images, wherein participants incorrectly assigned simulated protanopia and deuteranopia nevi images to malignant lesions. Protanopia and deuteranopia affected the accuracy of diagnosing several choroidal lesions; however, ophthalmologists with those two simulated CVDs were still able to discriminate between benign and malignant tumors.